Women in the Early Christian Church
By: Bob Moore
Introduction
The Hebrew Foundation
From the days of Abraham the Hebrews worshipped a God much different than that worshipped by the heathen. Originally, the pagans knew the true Lord, but, as one of their own historians admits, "on account of their lack of faith and their neglect of divine worship and true religion they invented the art of creating gods. ...[To do this] they called up the souls of angels or demons and made them inhere in sacred images and in divine mysteries, so that by their means [that is, the demons] the idols could have power of doing good or inflicting harm."1 The result of this apostasy was that those embracing it ended up worshipping the creation of their own hands in the place of their Creator (Rom 1:21-25), and giving honor to devils instead of God (I Cor 10:20). Eminent among the many gods which evolved the mother goddess, who boasted that she was "nature, the parent of all things, Mistress of all the elements, ...the first of all heavenly beings."2 Called in different languages Isis, Diana, Venus, Ashtaroth, she is for the pagan the personification of that portion of the divine which is feminine. To attend this female deity the idolaters authorized a female priesthood of priestesses3, which could more adequately express her attributes and desires. The Jews, however, worshipped a singular masculine God. "There is no goddess to share His throne; no priestess ministers in His temple."4The Apostles
Before His ascension Jesus commissioned His disciples to go into all the world and preach the gospel (Matt 28:10-20). This job was most arduous, for the times then were not only primitive but violent. This meant that the gospel was propagated by ministers who traveled on foot, often in strange and foreign lands, and were away from home for years at a time. Not only were their lives in jeopardy from the rigors and dangers of travel then, but often they faced persecution with its threat of martyrdom from the people to whom they preached. Their initial lack of friends where they first went meant that they had few, if any, places to provide refuge, protection and support. Even the necessities of life such as food and shelter were at times difficult to obtain. To provide assistance, many apostles took their wives with them (I Cor 9:3). Philip took Marianne as an associate.8 Normally, this missionary band was composed of several people, both men and women (Phil 4:3), so that the responsibility of the various tasks, from providing life's necessities to giving ministry, could be more equally borne. The women accompanying the apostles were called "sisters", but were not necessarily related to them.9 Their presence freed the apostles to preach the gospel without undue concern for their physical needs."For the women of those days were more spirited than lions, sharing with the Apostles their labors for the Gospel's sake. In this way they went traveling with them, and also performed all other ministries. And even in Christ's day there followed him women, 'which ministered unto Him of their substance, and waited upon the Teacher.'"12
The church was fortunate to have a large number of women servants then. While some, as traveling ministers, assisted the
apostles, others served in new-founded congregations. Converts from the women's quarters could not remain housed
among the pagans, for "what part hath he that believeth with an infidel?" (2 Cor 6:15) Having now no other means of
support, these converts became at baptism dependent upon the charity of the saints. Paul had charged the church to care
for what he called "widows indeed". These women were bound together into a sisterhood (2 Tim 5:3-17) which, as we
shall see, eventually developed into the order of widows. At first some needy widows lived with more affluent women,
but in time, quarters for them were established in each locality. In fact, within two centuries the convents overflowed
with residents. John Chrysostom tells that the number at Antioch alone exceeded 300013. The responsibility for visiting
and providing care to these women fell upon other women. Propriety still prevented men from visiting any convent,
whether pagan or Christian.
Women, then, provided two types of ministry to those residing in the women's quarters. first, they distributed charities.
Justin tells us that at each sacrament service the Bishop received an oblation offering14 to be given to orphans and
widows. Since he could not distribute them himself he designated certain women to do the job on his behalf. These
women used their own discretion, subject of course to the advice of the bishop, and sometimes endured complaints from
widows who felt they received too little. A second duty these women performed was teaching other women the principles
and practices of Christian living. This instruction included teaching the younger women to "be sober, to love their
husbands, to love their children, to be discreet, chaste, keepers at home, good, obedient to their husbands." (Tit 2:4-5)
Because the recipients of these benefits were themselves anxious to return the hospitality they had received, the church
quickly developed a number of capable women ministers.
Some women gave long and outstanding service, and became famous for it. Among them were Phoebe (Rom 16:1-2),
Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:9), and perhaps Junia (Rom 16:7). Even in ancient times some debated
whether Junia was a man or woman.15 If a woman, the latter two traveled with the apostles but the first seems to have
ministered among the saints, for Paul called her a "helper". Actually, the Greek word he used is "prostatis". According to
the scholars the use of this word "evokes a custom known by the ancients as 'patronage? by which material assistance and
moral support were given by more influential persons to the communities, or to some individual, who made up their
'clientele'."16 While the help provided by Phoebe was probably given to other women, especially those in want, in her
case it was not limited to them. Paul states that he was a recipient of her generosity (Rom 16:2). By this he means he was
lodged and fed by her when preaching in the area she resided.17 How many congregations have been established either
in the early days of the apostolic church or in the early days of the restoration because women opened their homes to a
preacher of the gospel?
The latter two women were called in the Greek scripture "diakonos". This same word was used in reference to the
widows mentioned in Timothy. Clement of Alexandria used the word "syndiakonous" when referring to the apostles'
sisters. Diakonos literally means "servant" and could be translated "deaconess". Those advocating that the early church
ordained women point to the use of this word in the original texts as evidence that women held a specific priesthood
office. While such a conclusion seems on the surface to be reasonable, other evidence refutes it. This is because the word
"diakonos" in used in scriptural passages which have no reference to women. Paul uses the word in reference to himself
and his works (Rom 11:13; 1 Cor 3:5; 2 Cor 3:4; 2 Cor 6:3). He lists it as a manifestation of the Spirit placed between the
gift of prophecy and the gift of teaching (Rom 12:7), which the King James translates as "ministry". The word is also
used to describe the work of Stephanas and his household, they having "devoted themselves to the service of the saints"
(eis diakomian tois hagiois etaxan heautous) (I Cor 16:15). Such a varied use implies that the word, instead of defining a
specific office or calling for women, had a broad application.
Today we use the word "minister" in such a broad way. While we say a priesthood member ministers in ways peculiar to
his office, we also describe the service lay members give by using the word "minister". We speak of the ministry of
music, the ministry of social service, and the ministry of physical care, all of which can be and are performed by the
unordained. The fact that Paul uses the word "diakonos" in such diverse ways implies that he did not intend it to describe
a priesthood office. As a result, some scholars have concluded that the most reasonable way to translate "diakonos" is to
render it "minister".18 This means that the use of the word "diakonos" in the original text is no evidence that women
were ordained to priestly offices.
Supporters of the belief that women were ordained in the days of the apostles also point to the text (Rom 16:7) which
mentions that Junia was noted among the apostles. They conclude that Junia, who perhaps was a woman, held the
apostolic office. This seems a reasonable assumption, too. Equally reasonable, however, is the assertion that Junia was a
noteworthy sister of the apostles, who traveled with them in order to provide them ministry, and who helped spread the
gospel among widows and housewives.19 Fortunately, Clement helps us determine which of these two possible
interpretations is correct. Clement was the third Bishop of Rome, succeeding Linus and Anacletus.20 He had labored
with Paul (Phil 4:3) before assuming the pastorship. This gave him first hand knowledge about those who served in the"
apostolic office. His position at Rome kept him in touch with affairs throughout the church, for all church-wide
correspondence required his consent, if not his approval.21 In his first epistle to the Corinthians he writes,
"So likewise our Apostles knew by our Lord Jesus Christ, that there should contentions arise upon account of the ministry. And therefore having a perfect foreknowledge of this, they appointed persons, as we have before said, and then gave direction, how, when they should die, other chosen and approved men should succeed in their ministry."22
Clearly, only men succeeded the original apostles. Junia, their contemporary, if a woman, could not have served in that
office.
Despite the apparent fact that women did not hold the sacerdotal office, the early church still discussed the ministry they
should provide. Perhaps the pagan practice of priestesses kept the issue alive among the saints as converts after baptism
had to be continually weaned away from the doctrine. At any rate, the Cannons of the Apostles quotes their discussion
and the decision they made.
"Andrew said: It would be good, my brethren, if we established ministries for women.
Peter said: Having given commandment and direction concerning all these things, we have come thus far. Now we will give careful teaching concerning the oblation of the Body and Blood.
John said: You have forgotten, my brethren, that our teacher, when He asked for bread and the cup, and blessed them saying, 'This is my Body and my Blood& did not permit these (the women) to stand among us.
Martha said: (concerning Mary) I saw her laughing between her teeth exulting.
Mary said: I did not really laugh, only I remembered the words of our Lord and I exulted; for you know that He told us before, when he was teaching: 'The weak shall be saved through the strong.'
Cephas said: We ought to remember several things, for it does not benefit women that they stand up for prayer, but that they should sit on the ground.
James said: Now then with regard to the women can we fix any ministry, except that they strengthen and keep vigil for those women who are in want."23
Early in its history the church embraced the principle that women should be devoted solely to the ministry of other women. They were not to teach in church (I Tim 2:12), exercise authority over men (2 Tim 2:12), or prophesy with their heads uncovered (I Cor 11:5). First of all, such prohibitions were in keeping with the precedent the Old Testament set. In ancient Israel a prophetess did not approach the King or his court as Isaiah, Jeremiah and other prophets did, but remained at home and waited for the Lord to bring the King to her. Huldah follows this procedure when she prophesies to Josiah (2 Chr 34:23-24). Second, the early saints believed these restrictions were in keeping with nature, which had placed women in a lesser role to men.24 This did not prohibit them from sharing their testimony with men. Some did. After all, the church was infused with enthusiasm as it spread the good news of Mint into foreign lands. It did, however, mean that the circumstances in which it was acceptable were relatively rare. As the church grew the need for women assistants in missionary hands lessened. Friendly homes were opened in increasingly more places. When this happened the service the church needed women to fulfill was to provide ministry to other women. No ordination was needed for this. After all, it is the duty of any member to both bear a personal testimony and perform deeds of charity.
The Apostolic Father
The generation which followed continued the missionary efforts of the apostles. Like them they suffered martyrdom, but the blood of the righteous was sprouting congregations of believers throughout the known world. In this fast developing church little attention seems to have been given to historical documentation or theological dissertations. What remains are epistles to advise and comfort particular congregations and apologies to persuade Jew, Gentile or heretic to believe and obey the gospel. The issue of women ministry does not directly appear in the short volume of work remaining from that period. However, three indirect references do occur."It will become you, as the church of God, to ordain some deacon to go to them Cat Antioch thither as the ambassador of God; ... Blessed be that man in Jesus Christ, who shall be found worthy of such a ministry.25
In his epistle to Polycarp he writes similar advice.
"It is fitting, O Polycarp, most blessed in God, to assemble a very solemn council, and to elect one whom you greatly love, and know to be a man of activity, who may be designated the messenger of God; and to bestow on him this honour that he may go into Syria."26
If women actually served in the priesthood during this period of history it seems likely that even if none are mentioned
among the list of male ministers, they would at least not be uniformly excluded, as Ignatius implies, from a particular
ministerial responsibility that is obviously reserved for only men.
Justin gives Monger evidence that women were not ordained during those times. While explaining in his first apology the
administration of the sacrament, he describes how the communion service proceeded. He states that the bread and wine is
"brought to the president of the brethren"27 for a blessing. The editors in their footnotes give the Greek text and then
may, "This expression may quite legitimately be translated, 'to that one of the brethren who was presiding.'"28 Clearly,
the leader, or pastor elected in each congregation, and the entire clergy were all men. Some may suppose that this is an
inaccurate conclusion resulting from a failure to take into consideration the literary practice many use of writing in the
masculine case when referring to the general population. This, however, was not the case with Justin. When he referred
to both men and women he made his reference clear. For instance, in discussing the presence of spiritual gifts within the
church he writes, "Now, it is possible to see amongst us women and men who possess gifts of the Spirit of God."29 If
those presiding at the communion service or participating as priesthood were sometimes men and sometimes women
Justin would have been careful enough to not call them brethren.
Evidently, the early Christians called the priesthood a brotherhood. After all, the widows were called a sisterhood. If this
is true, Irenaeus gives further evidence that only men served in the priesthood during the early days. Speaking about the
inability of the heretics to perform miracles, let alone enact cures, he says,
"And so far are they from being able to raise the dead, as the Lord raised them, and the apostles did by means of prayer, and as has been frequently done in the brotherhood on account of some necessity..."30
The ability to raise the dead is a mark of a true servant of God ( K 17:24). Irenaeus shows that the heretics did not have the authority to do this, and in so doing reveals that the brotherhood did. The same authority that Jesus and his apostles exercised remained in the early Christian church among men ordained to that power.
Irenaeus also provides the last example from this period. After referring to the sin of Aaron and Miriam (Num 12:1-14) he asks why Miriam alone was punished. His answer followed:
"First, because the woman was the more culpable, since both nature and the law place women in a subordinate condition to the man. Or perhaps it was that Aaron was to a certain degree excusable, in consideration of his being the older (brother), and adorned with the dignity of high priest. Then again, inasmuch as the leper was accountable by the law unclean, while at the same time the origin and foundation of the priesthood lay in Aaron, (the Lord) did not award a similar punishment to him, lest this stigma should attach itself to the entire (sacerdotal) race."31
The above quotation shows that Irenaeus did not consider a woman capable of holding priesthood, for he states that one
reason Miriam alone was afflicted is because Aaron held the sacerdotal office. If women served as ordained ministers in
the first century church, Irenaeus would not have supposed Miriam's inability to hold the priesthood was the reason she
was afflicted with leprosy, nor that the reason Aaron was not afflicted was because he was ordained.
All three of these references illustrate that those succeeding the apostles neither recognized nor even conceived of women
functioning in ordained positions. Not only did they fail to teach this practice, but their comments rQ only understood
from a background of an all male clergy. This conclusion is supported by Tertullian who, writing shortly after this period,
reveals that only certain men were considered for ordination. He says, "they who are chosen into the sacredotal order
must be men of one marriage."32
Succeeding Centuries
Three orders of women developed in the early church. They are deaconesses, widows and virgins.33 All were a result of the interaction of the church with its pagan environment as it extended care to its women converts. The least significant of these three orders is the order of virgins. Apostle Paul had advised all who could to remain unmarried (1 Cor 7:33-38) in order to help spread the gospel (1 Cor 7:7). Since chastity was preferred, both young men and women made vows of service, often working together as brothers and sisters in the gospel. These vows were neither life long nor publicly made34. By the end of the first century the growth of asceticism had influenced relationships between the sexes to such an extent that many considered it a demonstration of faith to live together as brother and sister35 without yielding to temptations for sexual gratification. Unfortunately, too many couples were unable to obey their VOWS. Church leaders complained that some sisters became pregnant36 thereby dishonoring their baptismal covenant and becoming the cause of mockery among the heathen. Needless to say, this practice was short-lived. Afterwards, many women who preferred celibacy were numbered with the widows37. Celibacy among men eventually made its way into the Catholic clergy. Because virgins were never organized into a distinct group nor given definite duties, female virgins had little impact on church organization. Virgins were admonished to "walk in a blameless and pure conscience."38 In his Apostolic Tradition Hippolytus devotes only one sentence to them. He says, "A virgin does not have an imposition of hands, for personal choice alone in that which makes a virgin."39 Virgins were not ordained.40''A widow must not therefore stray or run about among houses. For those who are gadabouts and without shame cannot be still even in their houses; for they are no widows but wallets, and they care for nothing else but to be making ready to receive. And because they are gossips and chatterers and murmurers, they stir up quarrels; and they are bold and shameless."43
As a result, the church began to be careful in choosing which women should serve in this order. The Tradition suggests
that candidates he tested for a time prior to their appointment44 so that potential problem-makers could be detected and,
if unrepentant, excluded.
While widows had specified duties and sufficient authority to perform them, they were not ordained.45 The tradition of
the apostles specified, "When a widow is appointed she is not ordained."46 The reason for this is explained.
"But she shall not be ordained, because she does not offer the oblation nor has she a (liturgical) ministry. But ordination is for the clergy on account of their ministry. But the widow is appointed for prayer and this is (a function) of all (Christians)".47
The ninth Cannon of Hippolytus, once ascribed to Hippolytus, the author of the Tradition, states,
"The appointed widows should not be ordained, since we have in their regard the prescriptions of the Apostles Let them not be given ordination, but prayed over, since ordination is for men."48
Out of necessity some women were authorized to be in charge of the widows. Normally, they were women who were
already members of that order and had shown an ability to give faithful service. We have already seen that these women
servants distributed charities among the widows. In some congregations they were a part of the processional and had seats
on the rostrum. Their place was between the subdeacon and the reader. Often they shared the eulogy with the bishop,
presbyters, deacons, subdeacons, readers and singers.49
In places women in charge of the widows were given the title of deaconess. This title was probably chosen because some
people considered them women deacons. After all, they served other women. The Didascalia directs the bishop, "Those
that please thee out of all the people thou shalt choose and appoint as deacons: a man for the performance of the most
things that are required, but a women for the ministry of women."50 However, this title had been in use for some time.
As we have seen, it comes from the word "diakonos" which means "servant" or "minister". By the decade 50-60 AD some
women were already called deaconess.51 They had spent much time in church service and had earned the honor the
saints gladly gave them. Some had traveled with the apostles. The name of deaconess evoked respect from the saints
toward a women known to have given dedicated service to the church to such an extent, that in cases, she had become
dependent on its generosity. These women were given housing among the widows, and may have made up the original
order of widows mentioned by Paul.52 As early as 110, Ignatius, while waiting execution at Rome, addressed
deaconesses who were among the virgins and widows at Syrna 33. About 145 Hermes claims to have been given a divine
commandment to write a book and send it to Grapte, the deaconess, to be read to widows and orphans.54 However, not
every area of the church used the title of deaconess. In Egypt favored widows were called "widows who sit up front" or
"widows in office."55 While the office of deaconess flourished in Syria56, it was generally unknown in Palestine and
the west57. Regardless of the title given, women reaching this position "were allowed to teach other women; to visit
women in pagan households where men teachers would not be able to reach them; and to visit and attend the sick."58
They also served as door keepers on the side of the church on which the women sat."59
Early in the church rules governing virgins, widows and deaconesses were enforced differently in different jurisdiction,
For instance, the widow of Olympia who lived from 368 to after 410, and who was a student in one of John Chrysostom's
Bible classes for women, became a widow at the age of 18. Her husband had been killed in the military. Since many in
the church at that time considered it a sin to remarry under any circumstances she demonstrated her faithfulness by
serving as a deaconess from that time on60. Tertullian, speaking of events during the second century, tells of one woman
inducted into the order of widows at the age of 20.61 Both of these violate the age proscribed by Paul which admitted no
women' as widows until the age of 60 (1Tim 5:9). During the second century, the Didascalia required that no woman be
appointed a widow until the age of 50, because, if "she endure not widowhood because of her youth, and marry, she will
bring reproach upon the glory of widowhood."62 By this time appointed widows or deaconesses were required to remain
unmarried after they were widowed.63 Nearly a century later the minimum age was low-red to 40.64 We have seen that
at times all these age requirements were ignored. This only illustrates that different jurisdictions at different times
provided different rules to govern women ministers. It also explains why the office of deaconess was not universally
accepted throughout the church.
During the latter part of the second century the church in Syria organized deaconesses into a separate order. The
Didascalia cannonized them in the Eastern Church. It defined their responsibilities. One duty required a deaconess "to go
Into the houses of the heathen where there are believing women, and to visit those who are sick, and to minister to
Them in that of which they have need, and to bathe those who have begun to recover from sickness."65 A second area of
service was at baptism. By the beginning of the second century, at least, those being baptized apparently had their entire
bodies anointed with oil before entering the water. For modesty's sake a deaconess was appointed to anoint women
candidates.
"When women go down into the water, those who go down into the water ought to be anointed by a deaconess with the oil of anointing; and where there is no woman at hand, especially a deaconess, he who baptizes must of necessity anoint her who is being baptized. But where there is a woman, especially a deaconess, it is not fitting that women should be seen by men."66
The third responsibility prescribed by the Didascalia for a deaconess was to instruct those women just baptized.
''And when she who is being baptized has come up from the water, let the deaconess receive her, and teach and instruct her how the seal of baptism ought to be (kept) unbroken in purity and holiness. For this cause we say that the ministry of a women deacon is especially needful and important."67
The Didascalia gives the first known reference to the office of deaconess. It calls for an appointment but is silent about an ordination. The fact that any woman seems to be qualified to fulfill the baptismal responsibility assigned a deaconess, the Didascalia calling any woman to anoint a female candidate in the absence of a deaconess68, is strong evidence that a deaconess received no ordination. After all, if a deaconess was ordained at that time and considered to hold divine authority to assist in the baptismal ordinance, another woman who did not hold the office would not be authorized to function in her stead under any circumstance. For this reason, some scholars propose that the Didascalia created the office of deaconess, separating it from the order of widows, with the intention "to elevate the dignity of deaconess to a quasi-equality with that of deacons."69 This, action was an innovation in the church at that time.70 Some may suppose that the Didascalia authorized a female priesthood office. This assertion goes beyond the scope of that work. While it does allow the bishop to send a woman wherever they can not send a deacon,71 it does not allow women to function in any public ministry except assisting women baptismal candidates. Only bishops, deacons and elders could baptize.72 A woman was forbidden.
"That a woman should baptize, or that one should be baptized by a woman, we do not counsel, for it is a transgression of the commandment, and a peril to her who baptizes and to him who is baptized. For if it were lawful to be baptized by a woman, our Lord and Teacher Himself would have been baptized by Mary His mother, whereas He was baptized by John, like others of the people. Do not therefore imperil yourselves, brethren and sisters, by acting beside the law of the Gospel."73
A deaconess could not even say the baptismal prayer74 Neither could she teach.
"It is neither right nor necessary therefore that women should be teachers, or especially concerning the name of Christ and the redemption of his passion. For you have not been appointed unto this, 0 women, and especially widows, that you should teach, but that you should pray and entreat the Lord God. For the Lord God, Jesus Christ our teacher, sent us the Twelve to instruct the People and the Gentiles; and there were with us women disciples, Mary Magdalene and Mary the daughter of James and the other Mary; but He did not send them to instruct the people with us. For if it were required that women should teach, our Master Himself would have commanded these to give instruction with us."75
In fact, the Didascalia restricted women from even answering questions in public.
"And when she in asked a question by any one, let her not straightway give an answer, except concerning righteousness and faith in God; but let her send them that desire to be instructed to the rulers. And to those who question them let them make answer only in refutation of idols and concerning the unity of God.''76
The restriction in the Didascalia excluding women from teaching or presiding is consistent both with the early teachings
of the church and with contemporary teachings from other jurisdictions. About 180 Tertullian wrote, "It is not permitted
to a woman to speak in the church; but neither (is it permitted her) to teach, nor to baptize, nor to offer, nor to claim
herself a lot in any manly function, not to say (in any) sacerdotal office."77 Around 200 Didymus the Blind, while
commenting on the admonition of Paul, explained, "He does not permit a woman to write boots imprudently, on her own
authority, nor teach in the assemblies. The reason for this silence imposed on women is obvious: women's teaching in the
beginning caused considerable havoc to the human race; for the apostle writes: 'It is not the man who was deceived, but
the woman.'"78 About the same time Origen taught that "it is not becoming for a women to be a teacher of men; but they
must train young women in chastity and love of their husbands and their children."79 He added that "men should not sit
and listen to a woman, as if there were no men capable of communicating the word of God ... no matter what she says,
even if she says admirable things, or even saintly things, that is of little consequence, since they come from the mouth of
a woman."80 Over a century later John Chrysostom echos the same sentiment. While commenting on Romans 16:6 in
Homily 31 he says of Paul, "He means to hinder her from publicly coming forward, and from the seat of the Bema."81
The Bema is the pulpit. In his Homily on the salutations on Romans he emphasizes, "The matter is not the same when he
says: 'I permit no women to teach.' This declaration concerns teaching from the pulpit and giving speeches in public,
which belong to priestly duties."82 Epiphanius, a contemporary of John Chrysostom, sums the matter up when he writes,
"women were never worthy of the priesthood."83 Clearly, the writings of these ancient church leaders consistently show
that women could not teach, preach or serve in any public ministry. The Didascalia did not change the stance of the
church by authorizing a female priesthood.
The fourth century witnessed the publication of the Apostolic Constitution. Like the Didascalia it was written in Syria.
Forged under the name of Clement it expanded the duties and prestige of the office of deaconess. According to it a
deaconess watched over the women's section of the assembly to see that it remained orderly.84 She ministered to women
in the homes of non-believers and assisted women at the time of their baptism.85 A deaconess was also required
whenever another woman wanted to address a male minister.86 For the most part those duties are the same as practiced
in the previous century. What makes the Constitution significant is that it specifically calls for the ordination of a
deaconess. "Concerning a deaconess," it decrees, "J. Bartholomew make this constitution: O bishop, thou shalt lay thy
hands upon her in the presence of the presbytery, and of the deacons and deaconesses."87 The ordination prayer then
follows.
"Eternal God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Creator of man and woman, who didst replenish with the Spirit Miriam, Deborah, Anna, and Huldah; who didst not disdain that thy only begotten Son should be born of a woman; who also in the tabernacle of the testimony, and in the temple didst ordain women to be keepers of Thy holy gates - do Thou now also look down upon this Thy servant, who is to be ordained to the office of deaconess, and grant her Thy Holy Spirit, and cleanse her from all filthiness of flesh and spirit, that she may worthily discharge the work which is committed to her, to Thy glory, and the praise of Thy Christ, with whom glory and dominion be to thee and the Holy Spirit forever. Amen."88
In 451, a century after the Constitution, the Council of Chalcedon approved the practice of setting a deaconess apart by the imposition of hands. It ruled,
''A woman shall not receive the laying on of hands as a deaconess under 40 years of age, and then only after searching examination. And if after she has had hands laid on her and has continued for a time to minister, she shall despise the grace of God and give herself in marriage, she shall be anathematized and the man united to her."89
Evidence shows that in the Syrian church, at least, women were eventually elevated to a position of responsibility
requiring an ordination. The question arises, however, what was the ordination these women received? Did they received
authority to function in priestly roles, or were they merely set apart for tasks the church had already asked them to do?
The answer to this question is revealed in the duties and prohibitions placed on the office of deaconess by the same work
that first authorized their ordination, the Constitution.
The Constitution specifically forbids a deaconess to "do or say anything without the deacon."90 In addition it prohibits
her from performing any of the ordinances.
"A deaconess does not bless, nor perform anything belonging to the office of presbyters or deacons, but only is to keep the doors, and administer to the presbyters in the baptizing of women, on account of decency."91
She can not ordain92 and is not to baptize.
"Now as to woman's baptizing, we let you know that there is no small peril to those that undertake it. Therefore we do not advise you do it; for it is dangerous, or rather wicked and impious For if the man be the head of the woman; and he be originally ordained for the priesthood, it is not just to abrogate the order of creation."93
It goes on to explain.
"For if baptism were to be administered by women, certainly our Lord would have been baptized by his own mother, and not by John; or when He sent us to baptize, He would have sent along with us women also for this purpose. But now He has nowhere, either by constitution, or by writing, delivered to us any such thing."94
In fine, a woman was prohibited from functioning in any priestly role.
"But if in the foregoing constitutions we have not permitted them to teach, how will any one allow them, contrary to nature, to perform the office of a priest? For this Is one of the ignorant practices of the Gentile- atheism, to ordain women priests to the female deities, not one of the constitutions of Christ."95
These references clearly show that a deaconess was given no authority in the Constitution to function in any of the
ordinances of the church. She could not even perform ministry outside the quarters for widows without the presence of a
male minister. This is strong evidence that the ordination a deaconess received was only a formal setting apart of
appointed widows, and carried no priesthood authority. Epiphanius supports this conclusion when he maintained that
deaconesses were "not priestesses in any sense, that their mission was not to interfere in any way with Sacerdotal
functions, but simply to perform certain offices in the care of women."96 "From all this it is evident that they are entirely
in error who suppose that 'the laying on of hands' which the deaconess received corresponded to that by which persons
were ordained to the deaconate, presbyterate, and episcopate at that period of the church's history."97
Despite the eventual ordination of deaconesses in some jurisdictions, we find the early Christian church consistent in
prohibiting women from performing any part of the sacerdotal office. What seems clear is that the office of deaconess
evolved over the centuries until it attained a status for women not originally intended by the apostles, a status calling for a
special commission provided by the laying on of hands. The Constitution itself admits this when it reveals that men were
"originally ordained for the priesthood."98 This evolution is highlighted by comparing the Tradition and Constitution.
The former, a work predating the later by a century, specifies that neither a reader99 nor a subdeacon100 is to be
ordained. The Constitution, however, ordains both.101 The Tradition does not mention the office of deaconess. The
Constitution provides for her ordination. The Tradition states that no woman has a liturgical ministry. These comparisons
show that the Constitution changed the former practice of the church by imposing the laying of hands when setting apart
a women minister, and demonstrates that both the office and ordination of deaconess evolved over the centuries.
Considering that the Constitution changed the more ancient pattern practiced by the apostles, and considering that the
office of deaconess which it helped established disappeared from the church during the sixth century102, one may
wonder what underlying factors caused its creation and temporary acceptance among the saints.
Montanism
Even during the ministry of the apostles some converts began to accept and even espouse strange doctrines. Jesus had previously predicted that some would endure the gospel for only a season before falling away (Matt 13:20-22). As a result the apostles, in order to defend the gospel, spent time warning the church about the heretical teachings that were beginning to besiege the saints (Acts 20:29-30; 2 P 2:1-3). Nevertheless, falsehoods swept through the church and a number of people embraced them (1 J 2:19)."Pretending to consecrate cups mixed with wine, and protracting to great length the word of invocation, he contrives to give them (the wine) a purple and reddish colour, so that Charis, who is one of those that are superior to all things, should he thought to drop her own blood into the cup through means of his invocation, and that thus those who are present should be led to rejoice to taste of that cup, in order that, by so doing, the Charis, who is set forth by this magician, may also flow into them. ...He devotes himself especially to women. and those such as are well bred, and elegantly attired, and of great wealth, who he frequently seeks to draw after him, by addressing them in such seductive words as these; 11 am eager to make thee a partaker of my Charis, since the father of all doth continually hold the angel of thy face before his face. Now the place of thy angel is among us; it behooves us to become one. Receive first from me and by me (the gift of) Charis. Adorn thyself as a bride who is expecting her bridegroom, that thou mayest be what I am, and what thou art. Establish the germ of light in thy nuptial chamber. Receive from me a spouse, and become receptive to him, while thou art received by him. Behold Charis has descended upon thee; open thy mouth and prophesy.' On the woman replying, 'I have never at any time prophesied, nor do I know how to prophesy;? then engaging, for the second time, in certain invocations, so as to astound his deluded victim, he says to her, 'Open thy mouth, speak what ever occurs to thee, and thou shalt prophesy.' She then, vainly puffed up and elated by these words, and greatly excited in soul by the expectation that it is herself who is to prophesy, her heart beating violently (from emotion), reaches the requisite pitch of audacity, and idly as well as imprudently utters some nonsense as it happens to occur to her. ...Henceforth she reckons herself a prophetess, and expresses her thanks to Marcus for having imported to her of his own Charis. She then makes the effort to reward him, not only by the gift of her possessions (in which way he has collected a very large fortune), but also by yielding up to him her person, desiring in every way to be united to him, that she may become altogether one with him."106
While such religious rites offend most today, the practice described above is not at all unlike the activities performed in
heathen mysteries. There, women mimicked the fabled history of the gods in which, among many other vile things, they
disrobed and pretended to conceive through physical contact with images of the gods.107 As a result, pagan women
initiates believed that they had a special relationship with those they worshipped. The reception-of Charis was less
degrading than the mysteries, and, with their apparent ability to prophesy which, of course, gave them a reputation as a
prophetess, was more rewarding then paganism. As a result many women embraced Gnosticism, most of them in time
believing that they were Christian. The early church tried to rescue the women deluded by this heresy.108
During the height of the Gnostic heresy there lived a man named Montanus. By this time the church, which had been poor
in the days of the apostles, had obtained a degree of both wealth and influence. As the prestige and power of the bishops
grew abuses occurred. Montanus, a devout Christian, denounced both the worldliness he felt most Christians were
beginning to embrace and the autocratic authority of church leaders. He demanded a return to a more primitive
Christianity. This required a simpler, even austere, way of living and, equally important, the reoccurrence of prophecy
among congregational members. By 156 he developed a following. In their meetings two women, Priscilla and
Maximilla, often fell into religious trances during which they delivered oracles for the sect.109 The role of these women
and their prophecies even eclipsed Montanus himself.110 In fact, their followers, complained Hippolytus, "magnify
these wretched women above the Apostles ... so that some of them assert that there is in them a something superior to
Christ."111 Joseph Smith in regard to a similar but different movement renounced such occurrences as false
manifestations. He concluded, "God placed in the church first apostles, secondarily prophets; and not first women.''112
Nevertheless, Montanism grew in influence and domain. It taught that Christianity had left behind the simpler truths of
the Gospel. Because this was true (1 N 3:168-170) it won many converts including for a while both Tertullian and
Augustine. Although the church pronounced Montanism a heresy it did not begin to lose members until the prophecies of
Priscilla and Maximilla proved false. It finally ceased to exist in the early part of the 6th century, about the same time as
the office of deaconess disappeared in the western church.
The influence of Montanism was immense. It "offered women a possibility of exegetical training and training in the
ministry of the word which proved to be very attractive and would enable women to receive the title deaconess."113
This opportunity appealed to gentile women who were accustomed to a more prominent position in religious activities,
and provided a place for women who had been caught up in Gnosticism to continue their "prophetic'' practices in
positions the church would not provide them. According to Epiphanius, who catalogued seventy different heresies that
had afflicted the church by the year 400, four sects of Montanism developed. He calls them Quintillianists, Prepuzianists,
Priscillianists and Artotyrites, naming them after different women prophetesses of Montanism.114 Describing these
heretics he states, "Among them there are women-bishops and women-presbyters."115 Of these the Priscillianists were
the first to provide some of the women joining the sect the title of deaconess, which title they imported from the East.116
Some of the women in these sects assumed authority to baptize, which church leaders, and in particular Tertullian
denounced as an "arrogant assumption of dignity."117 "The very women of these heretics," he writes, "how wanton they
are! For they are bold enough to teach, to dispute, to enact exorcisms, to undertake cures - it may be even to baptize."118
Almost two centuries later Ambosiaster adds, "As the way with heretics, who try to build their opinions on words and not
on the meaning of the law, they invoke the words of the Apostle to go against he thought of the Apostle. Whereas the
latter orders a woman to keep silent in Church, they, on the contrary, demand for her the authority which the deaconate
confers in the Church."119
The church was required to take measures to protect its members from Montanism. It warned them, especially women,
from attending questionable meetings. The First Council of Saragossa in 380 admonished, "Let all believing women
belonging to the Catholic Church keep away from lectures and meetings conducted by foreign men; neither join women
who give lectures, neither to teach nor to be instructed, for such is the command of the Apostle."120 Nevertheless, the
effects of Montanism were increasingly felt within the church. Perhaps church women, especially those sent under the
authority of the bishop, felt a need for more recognition, or even a title. After all, this was happening in the heresies.
Some women may have wanted the same type of leadership role to be provided for them by the church. For this reason
the Council of Laodicaea ruled in its eleventh cannon, "Presbytides, as they are called, or female presidents, are not to be
appointed in the church."121
Even though outside pressure tempted it to include women in priesthood functions, the church continually refused. From
the birth of Montanism by the words of Tertullian, through the resolution of Arianism at the Council of Nicea, the official
stand of the church, consistent with apostolic instruction, refused to grant ministerial authority to women. Tertullian
wrote, "Neither (is it permitted her) to teach, nor to baptize, nor to offer, nor to claim for herself a lot in any manly
function, not to say (in any) sacerdotal office."122 The Council of Nicea tried to establish ways for those enmeshed in
any heresy, whether they had been either ordained or falsely baptized, to return to fellowship within the church. In doing
so it reiterated the position those who had been titled deaconess should really have in the church by decreeing, "We mean
by deaconesses such as have assumed the habit, but who, since they have no imposition of hands, are to be numbered
only among the laity."123 About the same time John Chrysostom wrote in his work entitled On The Priesthood, "Put
when one is required to preside over the Church, and to be entrusted with the care of so many souls, the whole female sex
must retire."124 Canon 44 of the Council of Laodicea maintained that "women may not go to the alter."125
Consistently throughout the early church, priesthood function was denied women. The reason the church had to
repeatedly address this issue was because the tradition of priestesses was so deeply ingrained in the society about them.
Even with the constant oversight of the church some women were deceived. False teachings suggesting some women in
ancient Israel had held priesthood were even circulated to support the ordination of women ministers. In a final attempt to
settle the issue the Council of Nimes in 394 ruled,
"It has been reported by certain ones that, contrary to apostolic discipline and unknown until today, women seem to have been, one knows not where, admitted to the Levitical Ministry. Since it is improper, the ecclesiastical rule does not permit this-innovation. Made contrary to reason, an ordination of this type must be annulled and care must be taken that no one in the future shows a similar audacity."126
Conclusion
In time the issue of women serving in priesthood duties abated until it was no longer heard in the church. We have already seen that it stopped about the same time that Montanism lost its following. This lends significant support to the assertion that Montanism fueled the debate among the saints. While it has been shown that until this time women served the church in significant ways, it has also been shown that there is no evidence that any received an ordination authorizing even one to perform priestly responsibilities or to hold the sacerdotal office.Footnotes
1 Hermes Trismegistus; Asclepius, 37, as quoted in Augustine; City of God, Bk 8, Ch 24; Penguine Books; NY, NY; 1981; p 334
2 Apuleius as quoted in Colonel J. GArnier; The Worship of The Dead
Or The Origin And Nature Of Pagan Idolatry; Chapman & Hall; London; 1904;
p63-64
3 A. Maude Royden; The Church And Women; George M. Doran Company;
1924; p 25
4 Ibid
5 Apostolic Constitution; Bk 2, Sec 7, Ch 57, as quoted in Ante-Nicean
Fathers; Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company; Grand Rapids, Michigan; 1986; Vol 7,
p 421
6 Will Durant; Story of Civilization, Vol 2, Ceasar And Christ;
Shuster and Shuster; NY, NY; 1944; p 370-371
7 Ibid
8 Roger Gryson; The Ministry Of Women In The Early Church; Translated
by Jean LaPorte and Mary Louise Hall; The Liturigal Press; Collegeville, Minn;
1976; p 3
9 Durant; p 577
10 Alexander Hislop; The Two Babylons; Loizeaux Brothers; Neptune,
N.J.; 1959; p 228
11 Clement of Alexandria; Stormata 9;6, as quoted in Gryson; p 30
12 John Chrysostom, Homily on Romans, 20, as quoted in Nicean And
Post-Nicean Fathers; Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company; Grand Rapids, Michigan; 1986; Vol
11,
p 554
13 Jean Morris; Against Nature And God: The History of Women With
Clergical Ordination and The Order Of Bishops; Mowbrays; 1978; p 7
14 Justin, First Apology, Ch 67, as quoted in AF, Vol 1, p 186
[NOTE: This article was scanned in from an old typewritten copy. (A few typos may still exist from the scanning process that are not found in the original.) The footnotes did not scan well and will have to be typed. As time permits they will be added. -- Editor]